What Makes Women Social Cynics? An Exploratory Study

Authors

  • Faiz Younas Lecturer, Institute of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.
  • Dr Nasreen Akhtar Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan.
  • Dr Vicar Solomon Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Jhang, Pakistan.

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.52053/jpap.v2i2.58

Keywords:

Social Cynicism, Women, Gender Inequality, Paternal Control, Safety Concerns

Abstract

Although women are comprised almost half of the human population, still their experiences as a minority within the larger social framework, affect the affective and behavioral aspects of their personality including social cynicism. Unfortunately, social cynicism had never been empirically studied from the perspective of women, especially indigenously. By applying a qualitative approach, this study explored an indigenous understanding of social cynicism in a sample of (N=20) young adult women through a focus group discussion (n=6) and open-ended questionnaires (n=14), respectively. Five central themes emerged after the thematic analysis of the transcribed data that included gender inequality and exploitation, misrepresentation and misinformation, negative beliefs and generalizations, authority and control, and lastly, safety and security concerns. The findings showed several distinctive and indigenous themes like paternal authoritarianism, religion-based misinterpretation and sense of imminent danger while a few sub-themes were consistent with the previous literature. By exploring the construct of social cynicism in women, this study had not only broadened the limits of existing research literature on this construct but its themes could be applied for indigenous theory and scale development.

References

Ahmad, S., Islam, T., & Kaleem, A. (2021). Workplace Bullying in Pakistan: Mapping the Implications of Social Cynicism and the Moderation of Islamic Work Ethic. In Asian Perspectives on Workplace Bullying and Harassment (pp. 93-113). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2362-2_4

Alexandra, V. (2019). The role of social worldviews and self-control in moral disengagement. Personality and Individual Differences, 143, 74-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.02.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.02.012

Alexandra, V., Torres, M. M., Kovbasyuk, O., Addo, T. B., & Ferreira, M. C. (2017). The relationship between social cynicism belief, social dominance orientation, and the perception of unethical behavior: A cross-cultural examination in Russia, Portugal, and the United States. Journal of Business Ethics, 146(3), 545-562. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10551-015-2925-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2925-5

Bakio?lu, F., & Kiraz, Z. (2019). Burnout and wellbeing of teacher candidates: The mediator role of cynicism. Anales de Psicología / Annals of Psychology, 35(3), 521–528. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.35.3.354441 DOI: https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.35.3.354441

Barlas, A. (2019). Believing women in Islam: Unreading patriarchal interpretations of Qur’an. Saqi Books. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7560/315880

Bou Malham, P., & Saucier, G. (2014). Measurement invariance of social axioms in 23 countries. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(7), 1046-1060. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022114534771 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022114534771

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Bukhari, F. Y., & Ramzan, M. (2013). Gender Discrimination: A myth or truth Women status in Pakistan. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 8(2), 88-97. DOI: https://doi.org/10.9790/487X-0828897

Burgess, S. (2015, September 21). The Corrosive Effects of Social Cynicism. Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Business School. http://businessschool.mandela.ac.za/article/the-corrosive-effects-of-social-cynicism

Byza, O. A., Schuh, S. C., Dörr, S. L., Spörrle, M., & Maier, G. W. (2017). Are two cynics better than one? Toward understanding effects of leader-follower (in?) congruence in social cynicism. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38(8), 1246-1259. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2200 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2200

Chan, H. W., & Tam, K. P. (2021). Do people's assumptions about the social world matter? The effects of social axioms on environmental attitude and efficacy beliefs. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 75, 101598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101598 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101598

Chen, S. X., Ng, J. C., Buchtel, E. E., Guan, Y., Deng, H., & Bond, M. H. (2017). The added value of world views over self?views: Predicting modest behaviour in Eastern and Western cultures. British Journal of Social Psychology, 56(4), 723-749. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12196 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12196

Choy, B. K., Eom, K., & Li, N. P. (2021). Too cynical to reconnect: Cynicism moderates the effect of social exclusion on prosociality through empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 178(2), 110871. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110871 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110871

Dangel, T. J., Webb, J. R., & Hirsch, J. K. (2018). Forgiveness and suicidal behaviour: Cynicism and psychache as serial mediators. The Journal of Psychology, 152(2), 77-95. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2017.1408555 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2017.1408555

David, A. P., & Bernardo, A. B. (2021). Social axioms and domain-specific perceived academic control: a study of Filipino students. The Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 38(1), 36-46. https://doi.org/10.1080/20590776.2020.1834832 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20590776.2020.1834832

Davis, S. E. (2018). Objectification, sexualization, and misrepresentation: Social media and the college experience. Social Media and Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118786727 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118786727

Fetchenhauer, D., & Dunning, D. (2010). Why so cynical? Asymmetric feedback underlies misguided scepticism regarding the trustworthiness of others. Psychological Science, 21, 189–193. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/0956797609358586 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797609358586

Helgeson, V. S. (2020). Psychology of Gender. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003016014

Huda, A. R. U., & Ali, R. A. (2015). Portrayal of women in Pakistani media. International Journal of Academic Research and Reflection, 3(1), 12-18.

Indibara, I., & Varshney, S. (2020). Cynical consumer: how social cynicism impacts consumer attitude. Journal of Consumer Marketing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2019-3305 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2019-3305

Kumar, A., Praveena, P. K., & Barik, R. R. (2021). Adherence to COVID-19 appropriate behaviour among small scale workers in the unorganized sector in Rajasthan by applying health belief model and generalized social beliefs. International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health, 8(6), 2805-2811. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20211936 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20211936

Kwantes, C. T., & Bond, M. H. (2019). Organizational justice and autonomy as moderators of the relationship between social and organizational cynicism. Personality and Individual Differences, 151(1), 109391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.04.046 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.04.046

Lau, E. Y. Y., Li, C., Hui, C. H., Cheung, S. F., Lam, J., & Cheung, S. H. (2021). A longitudinal investigation of the bidirectional relationship of sleep quality with emotional stability and social cynicism in a large community sample. Sleep Health. 7(3), 384-389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2021.03.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2021.03.007

Leung, K., Ip, O. K., & Leung, K. K. (2010). Social cynicism and job satisfaction: A longitudinal analysis. Applied Psychology, 59(2), 318-338.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2009.00392.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2009.00392.x

Leung, K., Li, F., & Zhou, F. (2012). Sex differences in social cynicism across societies: The role of men’s higher competitiveness and male dominance. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43(7), 1152-1166. http://doi.org/10.1177/0022022111422259 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022111422259

Levent, F. & Keser, S. (2016). Examining the organizational cynicism among teachers at schools: A mixed-methods study. Educational Research and Reviews 11, 2009-2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.5897/ERR2016.3005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5897/ERR2016.3005

Li, Y., Tong, K. K., Tao, V. Y., Zhang, M. X., & Wu, A. M. (2020). Testing the Associations among Social Axioms, School Belonging, and Flourishing in University Students: A Two?Year Longitudinal Study. Applied Psychology: Health and Well?Being, 12(3), 749-769. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12205 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12205

Moule Jr, R. K., Fox, B. H., & Parry, M. M. (2019). The long shadow of Ferguson: Legitimacy, legal cynicism, and public perceptions of police militarization. Crime & Delinquency, 65(2), 151-182. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0011128718770689 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128718770689

Nair, P, & Kamalanabhan, T.J. (2010). The Impact of Cynicism on Ethical Intentions of Indian Managers: The moderating role of their level of management. International Journal of Trade, Economics and Finance. 1 (2), 155-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.7763/IJTEF.2010.V1.28 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7763/IJTEF.2010.V1.28

O'Connor, R., O'Connor, D., O'Connor, S., Smallwood, J., & Miles, J. (2004). Hopelessness, stress, and perfectionism: The moderating effects of future thinking. Cognition and Emotion, 18(8), 1099-1120. DOI: 10.1080/02699930441000067 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000067

Putranta, M. P. (2020). The Attitudes toward Codes of Ethics: Do Cynicism and Religiosity Matters?. Media Ekonomi dan Manajemen, 35(1), 128-136. http://dx.doi.org/10.24856/mem.v35i1.1335 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24856/mem.v35i1.1335

Schwartz, S. H., Rubel, T. (2005). Sex differences in value priorities: Cross-cultural and multimethod studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 1010-1028. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.1010

Shek, D. T. L. (2007). Perceived parental control and parent-child relational qualities in Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Sex Roles, 53, 635-646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s111990057730-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7730-7

Stark, J., & Meschik, M. (2018). Women’s everyday mobility: Frightening situations and their impacts on travel behavior. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behavior, 54, 311-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2018.02.017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2018.02.017

Stavrova, O. & Ehlebracht, D. (2016). Cynical Beliefs about Human Nature and Income: Longitudinal and Cross-Cultural Analyses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 110 (1) 116 – 132. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000050 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000050

Tong, K. K., Chen, J. H., Yu, E. W. Y., & Wu, A. M. (2020). Adherence to COVID?19 precautionary measures: applying the health belief model and generalized social beliefs to a probability community sample. Applied Psychology: Health and Well?Being, 12(4), 1205-1223. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12230 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12230

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2020). World Social Report (2020): Inequality in a rapidly changing world. https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/world-social-report/2020-2.html

Wu, W. C., Chen, S. X., & Wong, S. S. K. (2019). Predicting gambling propensity and behavior: The role of social axioms and distortive beliefs. Journal of gambling studies, 35(3), 969-986. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-019-09861-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-019-09861-0

Downloads

Published

2021-12-30

How to Cite

Younas, F. ., Akhtar, D. N., & Solomon, D. V. (2021). What Makes Women Social Cynics? An Exploratory Study. Journal of Professional & Applied Psychology, 2(2), 218–234. https://doi.org/10.52053/jpap.v2i2.58

Issue

Section

Qualitative & Mixed Method Articles

Categories

Most read articles by the same author(s)