Exploring the Association between Sexual Orientation Beliefs and Ambivalent Sexism in Young Adults
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.52053/jpap.v5i3.315Keywords:
Ambivalent Sexism, Benevolent Sexism, Hostile Sexism, Sexual Orientation Beliefs, Young AdultsAbstract
This paper investigated the association between sexual orientation beliefs and ambivalent sexism in young adults. It was hypothesized that sexual orientation beliefs would correlate with and predicate ambivalent sexism, while there would be significant sociodemographic differences across the study variables. Selecting a cross-sectional (correlation) approach, a non-probability convenient sample of 221 young adults (Mage = 24.84, SDage = 5.82) was recruited. After filling out a detailed sociodemographic information sheet, the participants responded to original (English) versions of the Sexual Orientation Beliefs Scale (Arseneau et al., 2013) and the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (Glick & Fiske, 1996). The analysis revealed that all sub-scales of the Sexual Orientation Beliefs Scale (discreetness, naturalness, informativeness and homogeneity) had positive correlations with hostile sexism and benevolent sexism. Moreover, discreetness, informativeness, and homogeneity beliefs predicted hostile sexism, while only the homogeneity belief predicted benevolent sexism. The socio-demographic variables of age and education emerged as significant correlates. Muslims held stronger ambivalent sexism than non-Muslims but no difference was found in sexual orientation beliefs. Hostile sexism was higher in men and those from a nuclear family system. Benevolent sexism was higher in unemployed and non-heterosexual individuals. Lastly, the discreetness belief was stronger in men and heterosexuals. This study would be a valuable addition to the academic scholarship as it provided insights into the indigenous patterns of sexual orientation beliefs and their relationship with specific forms of sexism.
References
Abdolmanafi, A., Nobre, P., Winter, S., Tilley, P. M., & Jahromi, R. G. (2018). Culture and Sexuality: Cognitive–Emotional determinants of sexual dissatisfaction among Iranian and New Zealand women. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 15(5), 687–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2018.03.007
Arseneau, J. R., Grzanka, P. R., Miles, J. R., & Fassinger, R. E. (2013). Development and initial validation of the Sexual Orientation Beliefs Scale (SOBS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(3), 407-420. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032799
Bowleg, L. (2013). Once You’ve Blended the Cake, You Can’t Take the Parts Back to the Main Ingredients: Black Gay and Bisexual Men’s Descriptions and Experiences of Intersectionality. Sex Roles, 68(11-12), 754–767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0152-4
Boyer, S. J., & Lorenz, T. K. (2020). The impact of heteronormative ideals imposition on sexual orientation questioning distress. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 7(1), 91-100. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000352
Brandt, M. J. (2011). Sexism and Gender Inequality Across 57 Societies. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1413–1418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611420445
Burn, S. M., & Busso, J. (2005). Ambivalent Sexism, Scriptural Literalism, and Religiosity. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29(4), 412–418. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00241.x
Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge.
Clarke, C. (1996). 2.6 LESBIANISM. An Act of Resistance. In Jackson, S & Scott, S (Eds.), Feminism and Sexuality (pp. 155–161). Edinburgh University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781474469517-017
Cowie, L. J., Greaves, L. M., & Sibley, C. G. (2019). Sexuality and sexism: Differences in ambivalent sexism across gender and sexual identity. Personality and Individual Differences, 148, 85–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.023
Cragun, R. T., & Sumerau, J. E. (2015). The last bastion of sexual and gender prejudice? Sexualities, race, gender, religiosity, and spirituality in the examination of prejudice toward sexual and gender minorities. The Journal of Sex Research, 52(7), 821-834. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.925534
Crawford, H., & Gregory, G. D. (2008). Scale validation issues in situations of minimal cultural difference. Marketing: Shifting the focus from mainstream to offbeat, 1-8. ANZMAC. https://www.academia.edu/81841037/Scale_validation_issues_in_situations_of_minimal_cultural_difference?uc-sb-sw=10459846
Davis, T. M., Settles, I. H., & Jones, M. K. (2022). Standpoints and Situatedness: Examining the Perception of Benevolent Sexism in Black and White Undergraduate Women and Men. Psychology of Women Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1177/03616843211043108
Deak, C. K., Hammond, M. D., Sibley, C. G., & Bulbulia, J. (2021). Individuals’ number of children is associated with benevolent sexism. PLOS ONE, 16(5), e0252194. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252194
DeLamater, J. D., & Hyde, J. S. (1998). Essentialism vs. social constructionism in the study of human sexuality. Journal of Sex Research, 35(1), 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499809551913
Etengoff, C., & Lefevor, T. G. (2021). Sexual prejudice, sexism, and religion. Current Opinion in Psychology, 40, 45–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.024
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175-191.
Ferragut, M., Blanca, M. J., Ortiz-Tallo, M., & Bendayan, R. (2016). Sexist attitudes and beliefs during adolescence: A longitudinal study of gender differences. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 14(1), 32–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2016.1144508
Fry, K. M., Grzanka, P. R., Miles, J. R., & DeVore, E. N. (2020). Is essentialism essential? Reducing homonegative prejudice by targeting diverse sexual orientation beliefs. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(5), 1725-1739. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01706-x
Gaga, L. (2011). Born this way. On Born This Way [CD]. Santa Monica, CA: Interscope Records.
Gates, G. J. (2011). LGBT identity: A demographer's perspective. Loy. LAL Rev., 45, 693. http://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/llr/vol45/iss3/2
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2001). An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56(2), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.56.2.109
Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., Adetoun, B., Osagie, J. E., Akande, A., Alao, A., Annetje, B., Willemsen, T. M., Chipeta, K., Dardenne, B., Dijksterhuis, A., Wigboldus, D., Eckes, T., Six-Materna, I., Expósito, F., & Moya, M. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 763–775. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.763
Glick, P., Lameiras, M., & Castro, Y. R. (2002). Education and Catholic religiosity as predictors of hostile and benevolent sexism toward women and men. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 47(9-10), 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021696209949
Grzanka, P. R., Santos, C. E., & Moradi, B. (2017). Intersectionality research in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 453–457. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000237
Grzanka, P. R., Zeiders, K. H., & Miles, J. R. (2016). Beyond “born this way?”. Reconsidering sexual orientation beliefs and attitudes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(1), 67-75. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000124
Güngör, D., Bornstein, M. H., & Phalet, K. (2012). Religiosity, values, and acculturation: A study of Turkish, Turkish-Belgian, and Belgian adolescents. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 36(5), 367-373.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025412448357
Haggard, M. C., Kaelen, R., Saroglou, V., Klein, O., & Rowatt, W. C. (2019). Religion’s role in the illusion of gender equality: Supraliminal and subliminal religious priming increases benevolent sexism. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 11(4), 392–398. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000196
Hannover, B., Gubernath, J., Schultze, M., & Zander, L. (2018). Religiosity, religious fundamentalism, and ambivalent sexism toward girls and women among adolescents and young adults living in Germany. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02399
Haslam, N., & Levy, S. R. (2006). Essentialist beliefs about homosexuality: Structure and implications for prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(4), 471–485. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205276516
Hayes, E.-R., & Swim, J. K. (2013). African, Asian, Latina/o, and European Americans’ responses to popular measures of sexist beliefs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(2),155–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313480044
Hegarty, P. (2002). ‘It's not a choice, it's the way we're built’: Symbolic beliefs about sexual orientation in the US and Britain. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 12(3), 153-166. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.669
Hellmer, K., Stenson, J. T., & Jylhä, K. M. (2018). What’s (not) underpinning ambivalent sexism? Revisiting the roles of ideology, religiosity, personality, demographics, and men’s facial hair in explaining hostile and benevolent sexism. Personality and Individual Differences, 122, 29–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.10.001
Herek, G. M. (1984). Beyond “Homophobia”: A social psychological perspective on attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 10(1-2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1300/j082v10n01_01
Herzog, S., & Oreg, S. (2008). Chivalry and the moderating effect of ambivalent sexism: Individual differences in crime seriousness judgments. Law & Society Review, 42(1), 45–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5893.2008.00334.x
Ichwan, J. (2014). The Influence of Religion on the Development of Heterosexism in Indonesia. Religión e Incidencia Pública, (2),192-223. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Influence-of-Religion-on-the-Development-of-in-Ichwan/fcdf436a24198ad14acc8e0f96125158323e9995
Israel, T., & Mohr, J. J. (2004). Attitudes toward bisexual women and men. Journal of Bisexuality, 4(1-2), 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1300/j159v04n01_09
Jahangir, J. (2022, January 27). Why are LGBTQ concerns moot in Pakistan. The Express Tribune. https://tribune.com.pk/article/97533/why-are-lgbtq-concerns-moot-in-pakistan
Jost, J. T., & Kay, A. C. (2005). Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: Consequences for specific and diffuse forms of system justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(3), 498–509. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.498
Kántás, É. M., & Kovacs, M. (2022). The role of sexual orientation and the perceived threat posed by men in the acceptance of sexism. Acta Psychologica, 230, 103749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103749
Keller, J. (2005). In genes we trust: The biological component of psychological essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(4), 686–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.686
Khalid, M. A. (2021). Assessment of Gender-Role Attitudes among People of Pakistan. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 09(12), 338–350. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2021.912023
Khan, S. A., & Khalid, R. (2019). Disciplines of Study, Empathy and Ambivalent Sexism of University Students across Gender. EC Psychology and Psychiatry 8 (6), 540-549.
Khoir, A. B. (2020). LGBT, Muslim, and Heterosexism: The experiences of Muslim gay in Indonesia. Wawasan Jurnal Ilmiah Agama Dan Sosial Budaya, 5(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.15575/jw.v5i1.8067
Kilianski, S. E., & Rudman, L. A. (1998). Wanting it both ways: Do women approve of benevolent sexism? Sex Roles, 39(5/6), 333–352. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1018814924402
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E., & Gebhard, P. H. (1998). Sexual behavior in the human female. Indiana University Press.
Kray, L. J., Howland, L., Russell, A. G., & Jackman, L. M. (2017). The effects of implicit gender role theories on gender system justification: Fixed beliefs strengthen masculinity to preserve the status quo. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(1), 98–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000124
López-Sáez, M. Á., García-Dauder, D., & Montero, I. (2020). Correlate attitudes toward LGBT and sexism in Spanish psychology students. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02063
Mastari, L., Van Droogenbroeck, F., Spruyt, B., & Keppens, G. (2021). Ambivalent sexism among Christian and Muslim youth. The gendered pathway of perceived pressure for religious conformity. European Societies, 24(2), 154–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2021.2012219
Miko?ajczak, M., & Pietrzak, J. (2014). Ambivalent sexism and religion: Connected through values. Sex Roles, 70(9-10), 387–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0379-3
Morandini, J. S., Blaszczynski, A., Costa, D. S. J., Godwin, A., & Dar-Nimrod, I. (2017). Born this way: Sexual orientation beliefs and their correlates in lesbian and bisexual women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 560–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000209
Morandini, J. S., Dacosta, L., & Dar-Nimrod, I. (2021). Exposure to continuous or fluid theories of sexual orientation leads some heterosexuals to embrace less-exclusive heterosexual orientations. Scientific Reports, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94479-9
Morgenroth, T., Kirby, T. A., Gee, I. A., & Ovett, T. A. (2021). Born this way–or not? The relationship between essentialism and sexual minorities’ LGBTQ+ identification and belonging. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50, 3447-3458.
Off, G., Charron, N., & Alexander, A. (2022). Who perceives women’s rights as threatening to men and boys? Explaining modern sexism among young men in Europe. Frontiers in Political Science, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpos.2022.909811
Okazaki, S. (2002). Influences of culture on Asian Americans’ sexuality. The Journal of Sex Research, 39(1), 34–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490209552117
Rees-Turyn, A. M., Doyle, C., Holland, A., & Root, S. (2008). Sexism and sexual prejudice (homophobia): The impact of the gender belief system and inversion theory on sexual orientation research and attitudes toward sexual minorities. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 2(1), 2-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538600802077467
Roets, A., Van Hiel, A., & Dhont, K. (2012). Is sexism a gender issue? A motivated social cognition perspective on men's and women's sexist attitudes toward own and other gender. European Journal of Personality, 26(3), 350-359. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.843
Ross, L. E., Salway, T., Tarasoff, L. A., MacKay, J. M., Hawkins, B. W., & Fehr, C. P. (2018). Prevalence of depression and anxiety among bisexual people compared to gay, lesbian, and heterosexual individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Sex Research, 55(4-5), 435-456.
Santos, J. J., & Cerqueira-Santos, E. (2023). Sexual Orientation Beliefs Scale (SOBS): Adaptation and validity evidence in the Brazilian context. Sexuality Research and Social Policy. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-023-00889-x
Schiralli, J. E., Peragine, D. E., Chasteen, A. L., & Einstein, G. (2022). Explicit and implicit gender-related stereotyping in transgender, gender expansive, and cisgender adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51, 2065–2076. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02339-y
Schnabel, L. (2018). Sexual orientation and social attitudes. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 4, 2378023118769550. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023118769550
Shahzad, A., Shafiq, S., & Sajid, M. R. (2015). Dimensions of religiosity as predictor of ambivalent sexism among university faculty in central-northern Punjab, Pakistan. International Journal of Gender & Women’s Studies, 3(2), 171-189. https://doi.org/10.15640/ijgws.v3n2a15
Sinno, J., Doria, N., Joy, P., McNichols, N., & Numer, M. (2022). North American Undergraduate Students’ Sexual Orientation Beliefs: Exploring Differences across Diverse Sexual and Gender Identities. Journal of Homosexuality, 70(11), 2418–2438. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2022.2060623
Studzi?ska, A., & Wojciszke, B. (2014). Przekonania o genezie ró?nic p?ci a legitymizacja nierówno?ci kobiet i m??czyzn [Beliefs about the origin of gender diferences and legitimization of inequalities between men and women]. Psychologia Spo?eczna [social Psychological Bulletin], 4(31), 396–408.
Szymanski, D. M., & Moffitt, L. B. (2012). Sexism and heterosexism. In N. A. Fouad, J. A. Carter, & L. M. Subich (Eds.), APA handbook of counseling psychology, Vol. 2. Practice, interventions, and applications (pp. 361–390). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13755-015
Tabatabai, A. (2016). Lesbian, queer, and bisexual women in heterosexual relationships: narratives of sexual identity. Lexington Books.
Tierney, D., Spengler, E. S., Schuch, E., & Grzanka, P. R. (2021). Sexual orientation beliefs and identity development: A person-centered analysis among sexual minorities. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(5), 625-637. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2021.1878344
Vandello, J. A., & Bosson, J. K. (2013). Hard won and easily lost: A review and synthesis of theory and research on precarious manhood. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(2), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029826
Van Kerckem, K., Van De Putte, B., & Stevens, P. A. J. (2014). Pushing the boundaries: responses to ethnic conformity pressure in two Turkish communities in Belgium. Qualitative Sociology, 37(3), 277–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-014-9283-y
Vieira de Figueiredo, C., & Pereira, C. R. (2021). The effect of gender and male distinctiveness threat on prejudice against homosexuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1241-1257. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000269
Vrangalova, Z., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2012). Mostly heterosexual and mostly gay/lesbian: Evidence for new sexual orientation identities. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(1), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9921-y
Whisman, V. (2012). Queer by choice: Lesbians, gay men, and the politics of identity. Routledge.
Yahya, H. (2020). Homosexuality as an open secret: a case study in Pakistan. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345893743_Homosexuality_as_an_Open_Secret_A_Case_Study_in_Pakistan
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Faiz Younas, Shazia Qayyum, Fatima Younas
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International License (https://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-Commercial use, reproduction
and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the Journal website at (https://iprpk.com/ojs/index.php/jpap)
